Newspaper and magazine ads in the United States entice male readers with the prospect of finding potential brides labeled as “Gorgeous Pacific Women” and “Pearls of the Orient.” These ads, placed by mail-order bride agencies, include catalogs showcasing women from Asia, South America, and Eastern Europe. The catalogs provide details such as each woman’s age, weight, height, and interests.’ This marketing strategy is a key element of a rapidly growing multi-million dollar industry that promotes women from developing nations as potential spouses for men in Western industrialized countries.

The contemporary mail-order bride industry bears some resemblance to historical practices, reminiscent of arranged marriages where families sent “picture brides” from their native lands to solitary men in foreign nations.

The original system of picture brides emerged as a necessity under specific historical and cultural circumstances. In contrast, the contemporary industry has evolved into a lucrative and global matchmaking business with dynamics and consequences vastly different from the traditional system. The current structure of picture brides relies on stereotypes and transnational economic inequalities to support a profit-driven commercial market. The mail-order bride industry perpetuates structures of subordination based on race, sex, and class within countries, between nations, and among individuals.

While some countries targeted by bridal agencies oppose the bride trade, the United States and the international legal system endorse the industry’s legality. The business remains largely unregulated, unmonitored, and unstudied. The United States has addressed the trafficking of mail-order brides primarily through immigration laws. Ironically, these laws have often disadvantaged foreign women, subjecting them to the control of potentially abusive consumer-husbands and denying them legal options and remedies.

The U.S. Congress formally acknowledged the existence of the mail-order bride industry and its potential negative effects in section 652 of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. This section requires mail-order bride agencies to disclose information to the recruited women. Despite this measure, the U.S. legislature has not passed any law directly halting the industry or regulating consumer-husbands. While the 1996 Act is a step in the right direction, it is likely to have minimal impact on the mail-order bride industry and falls short of significant reform.

To weak U.S. measures, the lack of international regulations has allowed the bridal industry to thrive. Because neither the U.S. legal system nor the international community has substantially responded to the mail-order bride industry, regulations enacted by supplying countries remain largely ineffective. The absence of international legal regulations has empowered consumer countries, bridal agencies, and male customers against any proposed laws to monitor the industry.

This analysis delves into the current state of the mail-order bride industry, exploring the power dynamics underpinning its operation, and proposing necessary measures for regulation. The focus is on the transactions involving one of the prominent consumer countries, the United States, and the two main suppliers of mail-order brides, namely the Philippines and Russia. In Section 2, we trace the evolution and mechanics of the modern mail-order bride business. Section 3 examines the economic and social conditions fostering the industry’s growth in the Philippines, Russia, and the United States. The impact of the industry on immigrant women is discussed in Section 4, while Section 5 scrutinizes legal responses from the Philippines and the United States. Lastly, in Section 6, potential avenues for regulating the industry and addressing the negative consequences of the international bride trade are considered.

The phenomenon of picture brides is not a recent development; indeed, it played a significant role in the settlement and growth of North America. During the period when men migrated to the western United States for gold mining and railroad work, the hazards of international travel and the uncertainties of frontier life deterred many women from making the journey to the United States. Consequently, predominantly male immigrant communities emerged across the country.

The gender imbalance prompted a demand for immigrant women, particularly evident in the Old West and other frontier settings, such as labor camps in Hawaii, Australian colonization, and early Irish settlements in New York. Lonely men in these situations often corresponded with their home countries, resulting in women arriving by train or boat to meet their future husbands for the first time.

Cultural beliefs and customs played a role in promoting the picture bride practice, particularly for Japanese immigrants. Traditionally, marriages were arranged between the man and his prospective bride, with families exchanging information and photographs before reaching an agreement. The marriage was formalized in Japan, and the bride then traveled to America. Chinese immigrant men, on the other hand, sought brides to fulfill personal desires and preserve the family unit, a cornerstone of the Chinese value system. Picture brides became essential for Chinese families in America due to immigration restrictions preventing men from traveling to China to choose brides.

While traditional arranged marriages placed newly married brides at a disadvantage, as they often did not choose their grooms or meet them before marriage, many of these unions proved successful despite the challenges faced by the women in a foreign land. The birth of subsequent generations attested to the positive outcomes of these marriages.

The phenomenon of picture brides is not a recent development; indeed, it played a significant role in the settlement and growth of North America. During the period when men migrated to the western United States for gold mining and railroad work, the hazards of international travel and the uncertainties of frontier life deterred many women from making the journey to the United States. Consequently, predominantly male immigrant communities emerged across the country.

The gender imbalance prompted a demand for immigrant women, particularly evident in the Old West and other frontier settings, such as labor camps in Hawaii, Australian colonization, and early Irish settlements in New York. Lonely men in these situations often corresponded with their home countries, resulting in women arriving by train or boat to meet their future husbands for the first time.

Cultural beliefs and customs played a role in promoting the picture bride practice, particularly for Japanese immigrants. Traditionally, marriages were arranged between the man and his prospective bride, with families exchanging information and photographs before reaching an agreement. The marriage was formalized in Japan, and the bride then traveled to America. Chinese immigrant men, on the other hand, sought brides to fulfill personal desires and preserve the family unit, a cornerstone of the Chinese value system. Picture brides became essential for Chinese families in America due to immigration restrictions preventing men from traveling to China to choose brides.

While traditional arranged marriages placed newly married brides at a disadvantage, as they often did not choose their grooms or meet them before marriage, many of these unions proved successful despite the challenges faced by the women in a foreign land. The birth of subsequent generations attested to the positive outcomes of these marriages.

In contrast to the traditional practice of arranging marriages within families to ensure the continuity of lineage abroad, the contemporary system has evolved into a profit-driven commercial market. Agencies across the United States capitalize on racial and economic factors to exploit and market women from developing countries, resulting in substantial financial gains.

The inception of the modern mail-order business can be traced back to entrepreneurs like John Broussard, an importer of Oriental bowls and vases, who, in 1974, diversified his business by venturing into the marketing of foreign women. The transformation of individuals into commodities to cater to a consumer society has proven lucrative for mail-order bride brokers, as evidenced by the significant increase in the number of companies marketing brides from foreign countries since the 1970s. The growth is apparent from the estimated 100 agencies in the United States in 1986, which doubled to 200 by 1992 and further escalated to approximately 500 by 1995.

Bridal agencies typically recruit potential brides from economically challenged countries through newspaper and magazine advertisements. These agencies openly acknowledge capitalizing on the economic dynamics of such situations, specifically targeting poorer countries for potential brides. While mail-order bride agencies traditionally targeted Asian women, particularly those from the Philippines, the market has shifted in recent years. Women from Russia and Eastern Europe now pose considerable competition to those from the Philippines in the mail-order bride industry.

Upon reaching out to women in their respective home countries through advertisements, mail-order bride agencies compile catalogs featuring photographs and descriptions of potential brides. The companies typically screen and showcase only the most appealing candidates, aiming to fulfill the desires of American men seeking a romantic fantasy. Some agencies request women to complete questionnaires, which are later perused by male clients.

Despite assertions that these agencies function as pen pal clubs rather than fronts for human trafficking, the catalogs they produce closely resemble department store listings. For instance, the November/December 1995 edition of Cherry Blossoms presented 500 full-body photographs and headshots of women with accompanying details, resembling a merchandise catalog.

Each woman in the catalog is assigned a number, and men interested can purchase their addresses for correspondence. While men pay fees for these services, the women featured in the catalogs are typically not charged.

Certain bridal agencies incorporate tours into their regular services, offering opportunities for men to travel and meet potential wives. These tours include airfare, hotel accommodations, social events, and immigration assistance. Some agencies, like Cherry Blossoms, organize tours to destinations like the Philippines, facilitating personal introductions to numerous eligible women.

In response to technological advancements, some agencies have embraced the internet for advertising potential brides. This digital medium allows for broader access to customers, and brokers can use images and sounds on the World Wide Web to simplify the process of selecting a wife. Users can browse online listings featuring hundreds of young women from countries like the Philippines, Thailand, or Russia with just a click of a mouse.